PROPHETS
1. The three parts of the Hebrew Bible (TaNaK) include the Torah (=Pentateuch), the Nebi im (=”Prophets”=Deuteronomistic History and Prophetic Books), and Ketubim (=”writings” =Psalms, Wisdom books, etc.).
2. The NebiÀim (“Prophets”) are subdivided into the “Former Prophets” (=Deuteronomistic History= prophetic interpretation of
Torah (Pentateuch) Nebi im (Prophets) Ketubim (writings)
Gen-Exod-Lev-Num-Deut-Josh-Judg-1&2 Sam-1&2 Kgs-Isa-Jer-Ezek-the Twelve-Ps-Job-Prov-Qoh
Deuteronomistic History Writing prophets
(Preaching prophets-Elijah & Elisha)
3. Two different versions of
4. After the destruction of the northern kingdom of
5. After 622 BCE these groups, originating from the north (the Deuteronomic circles or ‘school’) led the reform program (social/economic/religious) sponsored by King Josiah of Judah and following the Deuteronomic Law Code of Deut 12-26 (see 2 Kings 22, 3-6.8.10-13)
6. After King Josiah died in 609, the reform movement ended. The Deuteronomic school turned to history writing. It is easy to recognize their writing style:
a) “Homiletic” style, it sounds more like preaching than writing, for example Deut 6, 1-3.
b) Deuteronomists are suspicious of monarchy.
c) There is a strong influence from the preaching of the prophets.
d) The figure of Moses is very important for them.
7. They wrote a seven-volume “history” of
Martin North (d. 1976)
Trying to answer the question “Why was the
Chronological Chart
Period of the Tribal Confederation or “Judges” 1250-1050
United Monarchy (David and Solomon) 1000-922
Divided Monarchy North-Israel Cap.
South – Judah
Fall of the
Fall of the
Babylonian Exile 587-539
8. The purpose of the Deuteronomic history in its first (or pre-exilic) edition (between 609 and 587) was to give the answer: Because of the “idolatry” of the people especially the kings. This “idolatry” or betrayal of their covenant with Yahweh encompassed all the aspects of their life as a community, social, economic, political, as well as religious.
9. This “history lesson” served as a warning to the people and kings of the south (
10. Some pre-existing sources and materials that the Deuteronomic Historians stitched together to write their “History”
a. The Deuteronomistic Law Code (Deut. 12-20) that King Josiah had found in the
b. Stories from the different clans and tribes about the settling of the land (Josh) and the defense of the land (Judges)
c. Royal epics written during the time of David and Solomon
1) The “Rise of David” (How David came to be king instead of one of Saul’s descendants) 1 Sam 16, 1-2 – 2 Sam 5, 10.
2) “The throne succession narrative” (How Solomon came to be king after David instead of one of his elder brothers) 2 Sam 9-20 and 1 Kings 1-2)
d. Official records from the archives of the Kings of
e. Stories and legends about various prophets, especially Elijah and Elisha (1 Kings 11, 41; 2 Kings 2-9)
11. The Deuteronomistic Histories stitched their materials (the sources) together in three ways:
a. By linking “prophesy” and “fulfillment” as a way of demonstrating God’s powerful work that come through the prophets.
Example: 1) Nathan prophesies to David that his son Solomon will build the temple in
b. By imposing the recurring cycle or pattern of “sin-suffering-supplication-salvation” The events of their history. See Judges 2, 7-16; 3, 7-11
c. By putting speeches and prayers that reflect Deuteronomistic theology and themes into the mouth of famous characters. (ex. David in 2 Sam 7, 18ff., Solomon in 1 Kings 8, 22ff.
12. Built into the narrative were the two poles between which events moves:
a. On the one hand, God’s faithfulness (hesed or “covenant fidelity”, “love”) that served as the basis of hope.
b. On the other hand, Israel’s lack of faithfulness and the need for repentance and conversion of heart (shubh)
God’s covenant love hesed Israel’s failure and sins
13. The Book of Deuteronomy itself was put into the form of a covenant like the Hittite “Suzerainty Treaty”
Historical Prologue Deut. 1-4
Stipulation (obligation of the vassal) Deut. 5, 1-21; 12-26
Curse 27, 11-26; 28, 15ff.
Blessings 28, 1-14
14. The Deuteronomic Law Code (Deut 12-26) contain many laws designed to ensure just economic and political arrangements, ex.
- The “relaxation of debts in Deut. 15 (see 15, 1-3)
- Deut. 15, 7-11 and 24, 17-22 – Care of the poor, the weak and the vulnerable.
1) The obligation to be generous in helping the poor in Deut 15, 7-11
2) The poor, the widow, the orphan and the stranger were allowed to collect the remainder of the wheat, barley, the olive and the grapes (“gleaning”) in Deut 24, 17-22 (also in Ruth 2)
- The king is also under the covenant laws, limits were imposed on the king’s power (Deut 17, 14-20)
15. The profound theological insight that the Deuteronomists introduced into biblical theology was the importance of motivation for one’s actions “the heart”. Religious obligations involves not only external observances, but above all the interior – the human heart as well. (Deut 6, 5-6’ 2 Kings 23, 24-25; Josh 22, 5; 1 Kings 11, 4-9)
16. The Deuteronomic History was revised during the Babylonian Exile (587-539). The first edition, written before the Exile, between 609 and 587, addressed the question about the reason for the destruction of the northern kingdom, Israel in 722 by Assyrians. This second, revised edition during the exile, now addressed the question: Why were both kingdoms destroyed, Israel by the Assyrians in 722 and Judah by the Babylonians in 582 (2 Kings 25, 27-30)
17. The Exilic revision of the Deuteronomistic history took place after the release of King Jehoiachin from prison in Babylon in 561 BCE. His release was seen as a sign of hope, that whole people would soon be freed from exile and be able to return to their homeland (2 Kings 25, 27-30).
II. The “Prophets” in the Bible and the word “Prophet” (see Intro to the OT chap. 15
1. The popular (and incomplete) understanding of a “prophet” is someone who predicts the future (“clairvoyant” = “clear vision” of future events).
2. In the past, this incomplete understanding of a prophet limited the interest of Christians to the role of prophets in foretelling the coming of Christ. This is not a correct understanding of the Old Testament prophets. A prophet is more concerned about the present than about the future.
3. This incorrect “Christological” interpretation of the prophets has been replaced today with an understanding of the prophets as great figures in themselves --- religious and spiritual giants who played important role in their own society and challenging injustice and oppression. 1 Sam 9, 5-10
4. In earlier times, the Bible refers to a prophet as a ro eh “a seer, one who sees clearly.” (1Sam 9:9) and hozeh “discerner, one who can discern and judge” (Num 24:4; 2Sam 24:11; Amos 7:12). These terms emphasized the ability of these early prophets to see and judge present and future events.
5. However, The most common term in the Hebrew Bible for prophet is NABI (plural: NEBI IM). It has two meanings:
(a) Earlier Active Meaning : “to call, to invoke”; this meaning stresses the initiative of the prophet. The prophet is one who calls upon God, invoke God, on behalf of the people. See 1 Kgs 18:24-29; 2 Kgs 5:11.
(b) Passive Meaning : came to be the more important one because it stresses the initiative of God. The prophet is “one who is called by God,” commissioned, sent by God to speak God’s word, announce God’s judgments. The prophet is “one who speaks on God’s behalf, an agent or spokesperson for God.”
6. The English word “prophet” comes from the Greek (LXX Septuagint) translation of the Hebrew NABI profhths (prophetess) à pro = “for”, fhmi = ”to speak” : profhths = “spokesperson.”
III. Comparative Anthropology and Prophecy
1. The Divine Realm or Spirit World is that world beyond our visible world which somehow plays a determining or controlling role in our lives. It is a realm or world of forces or beings (“gods”) that are beyond our immediate perception and control, yet that continually play a decisive role in our lives.
2. Every age and culture has examples of contact with this Divine Realm or Spirit World:
(a) Gen 28:10-17, Jacob’s Dream of the “Ladder to Heaven” is a good example from the Bible. Here is a story which finds echoes in every human heart. It affirms that instinct or feeling we have that there must be more to this world than what we can see and hear.
(b) Example from the non-biblical world --- the “Dream Quest” or “Vision Quest” of the Lakota Sioux people, an American Indian tribe of the Great Plains in the Western USA. The Indian boy would be sent up into the hills alone. There he would fast and pray to the Great Spirit. After some days he would experience a very powerful and vivid dream or vision. He will narrate the experience to the tribal elders who interpret it for him, what it means for his future life and career. BLACK ELK (9 years old) “I saw a great tent in the sky surrounded by bright clouds. I approached and looked into the tent. I saw ten old men sitting there. One of them spoke to me and his voice sounded like thunder. Tribal elders told him that these ten “old men” were the “Thunder Beings” (embodiments of the forces of nature that control the winds and waters). They told him that the vision meant that he would become great and wise leader and adviser to his people.
Sam Gill, Native American Religions, p. 97-101 “Vision Quest”
3. There are also those who act as mediators and communicators between that Divine World and the community. They act as channels of communication who bring messages to others in the visible world from that unseen world.
4. Definition of an “official” or “recognized” mediator --- “a human being called to speak on behalf of a force beyond his or her control and deliver a message that evaluates or challenges the status quo.”
5. For a person to be a “recognized” mediator, two requirements are necessary:
(a) Their status or identity as mediator must be recognized and accepted by the community whom they address.
(b) They must use language signs, actions, and means of communication that can be understood by their audience.
6. Example of “official” or recognized mediator from comparative anthropology.
Wovoka (Jack Wilson) an American Indian prophet or “messiah,” member of the Paiute tribe in the American West (Nevada). He began the “Ghost Dance Religion” in 1890 among Indian tribes in the American West. He claimed to have a vision and experience a call to bring to the Indian people a message of liberation from the domination and oppression of the whites and a return to their traditional nomadic way of life. Wovoka could be considered a “recognized” mediator because:
(a) He appeared at a time of social and cultural crisis for his people;
(b) He used language and symbols his people could understand: songs and rituals – “Ghost dance” around a sacred tree; and
(c) He achieved acceptance by “acts of power” --- miracles and predictions that came true.
Joseph Smith (d. 1844) founded the Mormons (Church of the Latter Day Saints). He received a revelation in a vision from the angel Moroni. He wrote down the revelation and published it as “The Book of Mormon.” This became the “holy book” or scriptures of the Mormons who live in Utah State in the American Southwest.
Muhammed, the “Prophet” of Islam. The line of great religious figures who left their revelations in written form which include Abraham, Moses, David, Jesus and finally Muhammed, the last and greatest RASUL (“prophet”). Muhammed was taken to heaven by the angel Gabriel. There he received the revelation which he wrote down in the KORAN. All, including Muhammed, brought a message about Islam “surrender, submission, obedience (to God’s will).”
In the Philippines, the shaman provides an example of the “mediator” between the world of humans and the world of spirits. One type of shaman (passive) is controlled by the spirit who possesses her and speaks with the voice or accent of that spirit. A second kind of shaman (active) falls into a trance (ecstasy) and controls and commands spirits to carry out orders.
Thomas Overhalt, Cultural Anthropology and the Old Testament Chap II Interpreting Elijah and Elisha that describes many parallels between stories about these prophets and the phenomenon of shamans as described in anthropology.
7. Study of cultural anthropology helps us better to understand the OT prophets. The OT prophets are examples of this wider cultural phenomenon of “mediators” between the visible world and the Divine or “Spirit World” that we find in every age and culture.
8. One unique aspect of the biblical prophets, however, that sets them apart from “mediators” in other cultures and times is that they consistently spoke out strongly on justice issues. They were courageous defender of justice and opposed all forms of injustice and oppression of the poor and downtrodden.
IV. The Origins of Israel as Background to the Prophetic Movement: The Question of “Political Economy”
1. The most widespread form of political economy in the ancient world was a “tributary economy.”
2. Like capitalism of today, a tributary economy was based on relationships of domination. A powerful central state (Egypt, Assyria, Babylon) or smaller city-states (such as Canaan) dominated the countryside where the vast majority (95%) of the population lived in small villages and engaged in agriculture and animal-breeding.
3. It could be called “tributary” because the ruling elite (5%) living in walled cities demanded heavy tribute from the people in the countryside villages. This tribute included portions of the harvested crops and periods of forced labor for public works and military service.
4. Early Israel originated from groups who rebelled against this tributary economy. They fled to the Central Hill Country and organized into villages, clans and tribes to protect themselves against the tribute-demanding city-states of the valleys and plains.
5. Early Israel rejected the tributary economy and formed instead a “communitarian economy.” Characteristics included:
(a) They asserted full control over their own labor products and refused to surrender any of it in tribute, nor did they demand tribute of others.
(b) They created a society and culture in which cooperation took precedence over competition.
(c) They developed methods for cooperation: cooperative labor, mutual aid, interest-free loans or grants when one group was in difficulty from crop failure, drought, sickness, enemy attack.
(d) They created a religious culture to support this cooperative community with its communitarian economy. Through the covenant, Yahweh granted them alternative social and economic forms --- a communitarian model in contrast to the tributary model they had rebelled against and withdrawn from.
6. After 200 years (1250-1050 BCE) pressures grew from outside (Philistines) and inside (failures of mutual aid system, unfaithfulness to the covenant) that led Israel full circle to a centralized state under David and Solomon.
7. The centralized state under a king meant a return to the “tributary economy.” Now the oppression came from the Israelite rulers, landlords, and merchants instead of non-Israelite ones (Egyptian, Canaanites, Philistines).
8. One reason prophecy began was to keep alive the hope of a way of life together with more “communitarian” rather than “tributary” economic arrangements.
9. Israel’s political economy was at the center of the struggle between prophets and the kings during the period of the monarchy (1000-587 BCE).
10. The kings allocated a centralized or “tributary” economic and military system common in the Canaanite city-states and imperial powers such as Assyria, Babylon and Egypt.
11. The prophets argued for a decentralization or “communitarian” economic and military system as at the time of Israel’s origins and before the monarchy (Period of the Judges or Tribal Confederation, 1250-1050 BCE).
12. Throughout the monarchy period (1000-587 BCE), the prophets tried to balance the kings’ efforts to centralize economic and political power, by repeatedly challenging the foreign and domestic policies of the government.
13. According to the Prophets, the kings’ policies for providing economic security and military preparedness did not lead to peace for Israel, but to disaster (Is 1:1-7).
V. The Origins and Definition of Prophesy (Intro to OT, Chap 15)
1. At least five phenomenon from the ancient world provide background for the form that prophecy took in Israel.
a) Divination techniques were used by ancient peoples to obtain messages from the gods or information about future events. Baru priests in Mesopotamia consulted livers of sacrificed sheep for signs about future events or messages from the gods (hepatoscopy). Likewise, priests in Israel consulted the Urim and Thummim, a pair of lots or dice kept in the high priest’s Ephod. (See Lev 8:5-8; Num 27:18-23; 1Sam 14:40-42; 23:2-4; 28:6; 30:1-8).
b) “Prophets” among other peoples were known and recognized by the biblical writers, for example the Moabite prophet Balaam in Num 22-24.
c) Individuals in Mari in Northern Mesopotamia acted in ways similar to biblical prophets. They sent letters to the king of Mari containing messages from the gods warning about plots against the king’s life, instructions about sacrifices to be offered in the temple, etc.
d)Recently published texts (1997) from the Assyrian city of Nineveh, also in northern Mesopotamia casts new light on biblical prophecy. The Babylonian prophecies from Mari in the form of letter to the king regarding specific events or situation. In contrast, the Assyrian documents represents collections of prophecies with no historical event or situations indicated, only the words of the prophets or prophetess.
In other words, the prophetic words themselves, as divine revelations, were considered valuable in and of themselves and potentially relevant beyond their original context. This compare with the collections of prophetic oracles that make up our prophetic books in the Bible.
e) A kind of “ecstatic” prophecy existed among the Canaanites. It has similarities with the earliest biblical prophets:
(a) A god or divine power or spirit seizes control of the individual’s body and the individual falls into a trance or ecstasy.
(b) The god or spirit speaks by means of the individual’s voice.
(c) The trance or ecstasy can be brought on by hypnosis through dance, music, fasting, or mass hysteria (see the prophets of Baal on Mt. Carmel in 1Kgs 18:22-29).
(d) Similar ecstatic-like prophecy was found among the earliest Old Testament prophets, but it gradually disappears. Elisha brings on an ecstasy through music in 2Kgs 3:14-20. See also Saul in 1Sam 10:5-13; 19:18-24.
2. The importance of such background study is to know:
(a) Continuity – how much the OT prophets were similar to “prophets” among other people.
(b) Discontinuity – how the OT prophets were different in some respects from these other prophet types, on of the principal differences was the OT prophets’ emphasis on justice, and their defense of the poor and the oppressed.
3. Later Old Testament prophets developed a political metaphor to describe and explain their role as prophets. They described themselves as agents or delegates of the Divine Assembly, the cabinet or council of Yahweh, the King.
4. In Isaiah’s call narrative in Isa 6:1-10, the prophet describes how he has been privileged to be a part of the Divine Assembly (God-king’s council or cabinet), to listen to their discussions. He is appointed by that council to announce and put into effect its decisions and decrees.
5. Two characteristics of OT prophecy are seen clearly in this call narrative of Isaiah in Isa 6:1-10:
(a) The prophet’s overwhelming sense of having experienced an encounter with God. This gave him a supreme confidence and an almost obsessive impulse to preach.
(b) Second, the message of the OT prophets was almost always concerned with political or socio-economic issues. For example, Isaiah is sent to announce the disaster that would result from King Ahaz’s foreign policy regarding Assyria in Isa 6:9-13.
VI. From Preaching Prophets to Writing Prophets
1. The first appearance of prophets in Israel occurs during the Philistine crisis at the end of the Period of the Judges or Tribal Confederation and the beginning of the monarchy 1050-1000 BCE.
2. The first examples of prophets were groups of prophets called bene nebi im, literally “sons of the prophets” = “prophetic guilds,” “prophetic communities.” See 1 Sam 10:1-8; 19:18-20.
3. Early prophets like Samuel, Elijah and Elisha have some connections with these bene nebi im. Samuel, Elijah and Elisha are often shown as exercising guidance or leadership over these groups of prophets (bene nebi im).
4. Before the monarchy, the role of these bene nebi im or “prophetic guilds” was to encourage and rally the people to resist the Philistines so that the Philistines could not reimpose an oppressive “tributary economy” on the People of Israel.
5. During the early monarchy period (1000-850 BCE) these prophetic guilds performed two roles:
a) an economic role: These bene nebi im supported and encouraged cooperative economic arrangements as in a communitarian economy (e.g. mutual aid) to alleviate the suffering caused by the tributary economy imposed by the kings. See 2Kgs 4:1-7
The story exemplifies the widespread suffering among the people caused by the king’s economic measures. The story shows that it is Yahweh and not the king with his tributary economy who feeds and protects his people.
b) political role: These bene nebi im supported those who criticized and opposed the king’s injustice and oppression:
(a) 1 Kgs 21:1-19 = Elijah condemns King Ahab and Jezebel for murdering Naboth and seizing his vineyard.
(b) 2 Kgs 9:1-13 = Elisha starts a revolt against King Joram of Israel by anointing Jehu as king.
6. 1 and 2 Kings preserve popular stories and legends, filled with “miraculous” events, which demonstrate the popularity among the common people of prophets like Elijah and Elisha. As with stories about Jesus, and later with apostles and saints, they contain some historical facts but also elaboration and exaggeration. Compare Mark 6:34-44 and 8:1-10.
7. The prophet Amos makes a shift in the strategy of the prophets from private preaching to public preaching and publishing. Earlier prophets like Samuel, Nathan, Elijah, spoke directly to the king. But Amos announces his message in public to the people and has it copied down and circulated.
8. Amos imitates the Assyrian diplomacy in this shift.
(a) In the time of Amos (after 850 BCE) the kingdoms of Judah and Israel come under Assyrian rule.
(b) Assyrian diplomats often undermined the local king’s authority by negotiating directly with the local population instead of with their king (See 2Kgs 18:13-37).
(c) Amos and the later prophets imitate this practice and announce their message to the people of Israel or Judah directly, rather than to their king (Amos 4:4-5,11-12).
The Assyrian commander negotiates directly with the people and tries to influence public opinion to turn the people against the King Hezekiah and his policies.
VII. The Writing Prophets and the formation of the Prophetic Books
1. Two institutional settings were important for the development of the “professional” prophets:
(a) Religious institutions like the temple or local shrine: “professional” prophets were active in these centers of prayer and worship to give advice and instructions to worshippers and also to voice protest against oppression and injustice (Amos 7:12-15).
(b) Political institutions like the King’s palace --- professional prophets also served in the King’s palace as advisors to the king, for example, the prophet Nathan who served as advisor to David and Solomon (2Sam 7; 12:7,9-10; 1Kgs 22: 1-6).
2. The prophets borrowed or adapted literary “forms” or speech patterns from other contexts to convey their message:
(a) From the temple worship they took the Psalm forms such as the “Hymn of Praise” (Isa 42:10-13) and the Lament or “Song of Supplication” (See Jer 20:7-18).
(b) From the courtroom they took legal language or lawsuit language to accuse or to draw up indictments against Israel for breaking the covenant (Micah 6:1-5).
3. The prophets developed their own special speech pattern or “literary form”, the ORACLE. The characteristics of the oracle are four:
(a) It is a short utterance in poetic form.
(b) It is preceded or followed by a “messenger formula”: “Thus says Yahweh (Lord).”
(c) It was delivered orally.
(d) The message was delivered to contemporaries and had relevance first and foremost for their lives and situations.
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